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sn#146357 filedate 1975-02-20 generic text, type T, neo UTF8
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␈↓␈↓↓␈↓α␈↓
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ fAN EXAMPLE FOR NATURAL LANGUAGE UNDERSTANDING AND THE AI PROBLEMS IT RAISES
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_The␈α⊂following␈α⊂story␈α⊂from␈α⊂the␈α⊂␈↓↓New␈α⊂York␈α∂Times␈↓␈α∂is␈α∂my␈α∂candidate␈α∂for␈α∂a␈α∂target␈α∂for␈α∂a␈α∂natural
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hlanguage␈α∞understander.␈α∞The␈α∞story␈α∞is␈α∞about␈α∞a␈α∞real␈α∞world␈α∞event␈α∞and␈α∞therefore␈α∞the␈α∞intentions␈α∞of␈α
the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hauthor␈α
are␈α
less␈α
relevant␈α
for␈α
answering␈α
questions␈α
than␈α
in␈α
the␈αcase␈αof␈αthe␈αstory␈αabout␈αTad␈αdiscussed
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hearlier␈αin␈αthe␈αnatural␈αlanguage␈αseminar.␈α␈↓αThe␈αmain␈αgoal␈αof␈αthis␈αdiscussion␈αis␈αto␈αsay␈αwhat␈αa␈αperson
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwho␈α∂has␈α∂understood␈α∂the␈α∂story␈α∂knows␈α∂about␈α∂the␈α∂event.␈α∂This␈α∂seems␈α∂to␈α∞me␈α∞to␈α∞be␈α∞preliminary␈α∞to
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hmaking␈α
programs␈α
that␈α
can␈α
understand.␈↓
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_"A␈α
61-year␈αold␈αfurniture␈αsalesman␈αwas␈αpushed␈αdown␈αthe␈αshaft␈αof␈αa␈αfreight␈αelevator␈αyesterday
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hin␈α⊂his␈α⊂downtown␈α⊂Brooklyn␈α⊂store␈α⊂by␈α∂two␈α∂robbers␈α∂while␈α∂a␈α∂third␈α∂attempted␈α∂to␈α∂crush␈α∂him␈α∂with␈α∂the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Helevator␈α
car␈α
because␈α
they␈α
were␈α
dissatisfied␈α
with␈α
the␈α
$1,200␈α
they␈α
had␈α
forced␈α
him␈α
to␈α
give␈α
them.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_The␈αbuffer␈αsprings␈αat␈αthe␈αbottom␈αof␈αthe␈αshaft␈αprevented␈αthe␈αcar␈αfrom␈αcrushing␈αthe␈αsalesman,
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HJohn␈α
J.␈α
Hug,␈α
after␈α
he␈α
was␈α
pushed␈α
from␈α
the␈α
first␈α
floor␈α
to␈α
the␈α
basement.␈α
The␈α
car␈αstopped␈αabout␈α12
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hinches␈α
above␈α
him␈α
as␈α
he␈α
flattened␈α
himself␈α
at␈α
the␈α
bottom␈α
of␈α
the␈α
pit.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_Mr.␈αHug␈αwas␈αpinned␈αin␈αthe␈αshaft␈αfor␈αabout␈αhalf␈αan␈αhour␈αuntil␈αhis␈α
cries␈α
attracted␈α
the␈α
attention
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hof␈α
a␈α
porter.␈α
The␈α
store␈α
at␈α
340␈α
Livingston␈α
Street␈α
is␈α
part␈α
of␈α
the␈α
Seaman's␈α
Quality␈α
Furniture␈α
chain.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_Mr.␈αHug␈αwas␈αremoved␈αby␈αmembers␈αof␈αthe␈αPolice␈αEmergency␈αSquad␈αand␈αtaken␈αto␈αLong␈αIsland
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HCollege␈αHospital.␈αHe␈αwas␈αbadly␈αshaken,␈αbut␈αafter␈αbeing␈αtreated␈αfor␈αscrapes␈αof␈αhis␈αleft␈αarm␈αand␈αfor␈αa
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hspinal␈α
injury␈α
was␈α
released␈α
and␈α
went␈α
home.␈α
He␈α
lives␈α
at␈α
62-01␈α
69th␈α
Lane,␈α
Maspeth,␈α
Queens.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_He␈α
has␈α
worked␈αfor␈αseven␈αyears␈αat␈αthe␈αstore,␈αon␈αthe␈αcorner␈αof␈αNevins␈αStreet,␈αand␈αthis␈αwas␈αthe
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hfourth␈αtime␈αhe␈αhad␈αbeen␈αheld␈αup␈αin␈αthe␈αstore.␈αThe␈αlast␈αtime␈αwas␈αabout␈αone␈αyear␈αago,␈αwhen␈α
his␈α
right
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Harm␈α
was␈α
slashed␈α
by␈α
a␈α
knife-wielding␈α
robber."
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_An␈α
intelligent␈α
person␈α
or␈α
program␈α
should␈α
be␈α
able␈αto␈αanswer␈αthe␈αfollowing␈αquestions␈αbased␈αon
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α
information␈α
in␈α
the␈α
story:
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_1.␈α⊃Who␈α⊃was␈α⊃in␈α⊃the␈α⊂store␈α⊂when␈α⊂the␈α⊂events␈α⊂began?␈α⊂Probably␈α⊂Mr.␈α⊂Hug␈α⊂alone.␈α⊂although␈α⊂the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hrobbers␈αmight␈α
have␈α
been␈α
waiting␈α
for␈α
him,␈α
but␈α
if␈α
so,␈α
this␈α
would␈α
have␈α
probably␈α
been␈α
stated.␈α
What␈α
did
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α
porter␈α
say␈α
to␈α
the␈α
robbers?␈α
Nothing,␈α
because␈α
the␈α
robbers␈α
left␈α
before␈α
he␈α
came.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_2.␈α
Who␈α
was␈α
in␈α
the␈α
store␈α
during␈α
the␈α
attempt␈α
to␈α
kill␈α
Mr.␈α
Hug?␈α
Mr.␈α
Hug␈α
and␈α
the␈α
robbers.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_3.␈α
Who␈α
had␈α
the␈α
money␈α
at␈α
the␈α
end?␈α
The␈α
robbers.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_4.␈α
Is␈α
Mr.␈α
Hug␈α
alive␈α
today?␈α
Yes,␈α
unless␈α
something␈α
else␈α
has␈α
happened␈α
to␈α
him.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_5.␈α
How␈α
did␈α
Mr.␈α
Hug␈α
get␈α
hurt?␈α
Probably␈α
when␈α
he␈α
hit␈α
the␈α
bottom␈α
of␈α
the␈α
shaft.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_6.␈α∞Where␈α∞is␈α∞Mr.␈α∞Hug's␈α∞home?␈α
(A␈α
question␈α
whose␈α
answer␈α
requires␈α
a␈α
literal␈α
understanding␈α
of
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Honly␈α
one␈α
sentence␈α
of␈α
the␈α
stories.)
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_7.␈α
What␈α
are␈α
the␈α
names␈α
and␈α
addresses␈α
of␈α
the␈α
robbers?␈α
This␈α
information␈α
is␈α
not␈α
available.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_8.␈α
Was␈α
Mr.␈α
Hug␈α
conscious␈α
after␈α
the␈α
robbers␈α
left?␈α
Yes,␈α
he␈α
cried␈α
out␈α
and␈α
his␈α
cries␈α
were␈α
heard.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_9.␈αWhat␈αwould␈αhave␈αhappened␈αif␈αMr.␈αHug␈αhad␈αnot␈αflattened␈αhimself␈αat␈α
the␈α
bottom␈α
of␈α
the␈α
pit?
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HWhat␈α
would␈α
have␈α
happened␈α
if␈α
there␈α
were␈α
no␈α
buffer␈α
springs?␈α
Mr.␈α
Hug␈α
would␈α
have␈α
been␈α
crushed?
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_10.␈α
Did␈α
Mr.␈α
Hug␈α
want␈α
to␈α
be␈α
crushed?␈α
No.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_11.␈α
Did␈α
the␈α
robbers␈α
tell␈α
Mr.␈α
Hug␈α
their␈α
names?␈α
No.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_12.␈α
Were␈α
the␈α
robbers␈α
present␈α
when␈α
the␈α
porter␈α
came?␈α
No.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_13.␈α
Did␈α
Mr.␈α
Hug␈α
like␈α
the␈α
robbers,␈α
and␈α
did␈α
they␈α
like␈α
him?
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_14.␈α⊂Why␈α⊂did␈α⊂the␈α⊂robbers␈α⊂leave␈α⊂without␈α⊂killing␈α⊂Mr.␈α⊂Hug?␈α∂Perhaps,␈α∂they␈α∂thought␈α∂they␈α∂had
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hkilled␈αhim,␈αand␈αperhaps␈αtheir␈αanger␈αwas␈αappeased␈αby␈αthe␈αactions␈αthey␈αhad␈αperformed,␈αand␈αperhaps
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthey␈αhad␈αtaken␈αall␈αthe␈αtime␈αthey␈αdared,␈αand␈αperhaps␈αsomething␈αspecific␈αhappened␈αto␈αfrighten␈αthem
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Haway.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_15.␈α
What␈α
would␈α
have␈αhappened␈αif␈αMr.␈αHug␈αhad␈αtried␈αto␈αrun␈αaway?␈αPerhaps␈αhe␈αwould␈αhave
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hsucceeded,␈αbut␈αmore␈αlikely␈αthey␈αwould␈αhave␈αinjured␈αor␈αkilled␈αhim␈αsince␈αprobably␈αthey␈αhad␈αweapons,
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hand␈α
there␈α
were␈α
three␈α
of␈α
them.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_16.␈αWhat␈αcan␈αMr.␈αHug␈αdo␈αto␈αavoid␈αthis␈αin␈αthe␈αfuture?␈αNo␈αsolution␈αis␈αentirely␈αsatisfactory.␈αHe
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcould␈αcarry␈αa␈αgun␈αor␈αhe␈α
could␈α
quit␈α
or␈α
he␈α
could␈α
get␈α
his␈α
employers␈α
to␈α
install␈α
an␈α
alarm␈α
system␈α
or␈α
maybe
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hhe␈α
will␈α
be␈α
lucky.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_17.␈α
Did␈α
Mr.␈α
Hug␈α
know␈α
he␈α
was␈α
going␈α
to␈α
be␈α
robbed?␈α
Does␈α
he␈α
know␈α
that␈α
he␈α
was␈α
robbed?
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_18.␈α⊂Was␈α⊂Mr.␈α⊂Hug's␈α⊂right␈α⊂arm␈α⊂slashed␈α∂before␈α∂his␈α∂left␈α∂arm␈α∂was␈α∂scratched?␈α∂Yes,␈α∂because␈α∂the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hformer␈α
was␈α
a␈α
year␈α
ago.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_19.␈α
How␈α
did␈α
the␈α
robber␈α
try␈α
to␈α
crush␈α
him␈αwith␈αthe␈αcar?␈αBy␈αpressing␈αthe␈αbuttons␈αor␈αoperating
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α
control␈α
lever␈α
to␈α
make␈α
the␈α
car␈α
go␈α
to␈α
the␈α
bottom␈α
of␈α
the␈α
shaft.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_20.␈αWhy␈αdid␈αMr.␈αHug␈αyell␈αfrom␈αthe␈αbottom␈αof␈αthe␈αelevator␈α
shaft?␈α
So␈α
as␈α
to␈α
attract␈α
the␈α
attention
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hof␈α
someone␈α
who␈α
would␈α
rescue␈α
him.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_21.␈α
How␈α
long␈α
did␈α
the␈α
events␈α
take?␈α
More␈αthan␈αhalf␈αan␈αhour␈αbut␈αless␈αthan␈αa␈αday.␈αMost␈αof␈αthe
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Htime␈α
was␈α
spent␈α
by␈α
Mr.␈α
Hug␈α
filling␈α
out␈α
forms␈α
in␈α
the␈α
hospital.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_22.␈α⊃What␈α⊃crimes␈α⊃were␈α⊃committed?␈α⊃This␈α⊃question␈α⊃has␈α⊂the␈α⊂advantage␈α⊂that␈α⊂it␈α⊂is␈α⊂one␈α⊂that␈α⊂is
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hnormally␈αanswered␈αon␈αthe␈αbasis␈αof␈αsuch␈αa␈αstory,␈αsince␈αthe␈αpolice␈αreport␈αof␈αthe␈αincident␈αwas␈αprobably
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α∩basis␈α∩of␈α∩the␈α∩␈↓↓New␈α∩York␈α∩Times␈↓␈α∩story.␈α∩Robbery,␈α∩possibly␈α∩assault␈α∩with␈α∩a␈α⊃deadly␈α⊃weapon,␈α⊃and
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hattempted␈α∞murder␈α∞are␈α∞the␈α∞more␈α
obvious␈α
crimes.␈α
One␈α
might␈α
specifically␈α
challenge␈α
natural␈α
language
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hsystems␈α
to␈α
answer␈α
this␈α
question.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_The␈αabove␈αlist␈αof␈α
questions␈α
is␈α
rather␈α
random.␈α
I␈α
doubt␈α
that␈α
it␈α
covers␈α
all␈α
facets␈α
of␈α
understanding
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈αstory.␈αIt␈αwould␈αbe␈αworthwhile␈αto␈αtry␈αto␈αmake␈αup␈αa␈αlist␈αof␈αquestions␈αthat␈αdoes␈αcover␈αsubstantially
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hall␈αaspects␈αof␈αthe␈αstory␈αin␈αorder␈αto␈αget␈αas␈αcomplete␈αas␈αpossible␈αan␈αintuitive␈αidea␈αof␈αwhat␈αcapabilities
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hare␈α
involved␈α
in␈α
understanding␈α
such␈α
a␈α
story.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_Note␈αthat␈αthe␈αstory␈αis␈αabout␈αa␈αreal␈αevent␈αso␈αthat␈α
such␈α
a␈α
question␈α
as␈α
what␈α
does␈α
the␈α
"J"␈α
in␈α
"John
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HJ.␈α∞Hug"␈α∞stand␈α
for␈α
has␈α
an␈α
answer.␈α
In␈α
the␈α
story␈α
about␈α
Tad,␈α
the␈α
question␈α
of␈α
what␈α
was␈α
Tad's␈α
middle
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hname␈α
or␈α
what␈α
year␈α
the␈α
story␈α
occurred␈α
in␈α
does␈α
not␈α
necessarily␈α
have␈α
an␈α
answer.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_I␈αthink␈αthat␈αartificial␈αintelligence␈αis␈α
not␈α
very␈α
close␈α
to␈α
being␈α
able␈α
to␈α
understand␈α
such␈α
stories␈α
in␈α
a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hgenuine␈αway.␈αTherefore,␈αI␈αwould␈αlike␈αto␈αsneak␈αup␈αon␈αit␈α
gradually␈α
by␈α
dividing␈α
the␈α
problem␈α
into␈α
parts
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwhich␈α
can␈α
be␈α
attacked␈α
separately.␈α
Here␈α
are␈α
some␈α
of␈α
the␈α
components:
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_1.␈αA␈αformalism␈αcapable␈αof␈αexpressing␈αthe␈αassertions␈αof␈αthe␈αsentences␈αfree␈αfrom␈αdependence␈αon
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α∂grammar␈α∂of␈α∂the␈α∂English␈α∂language.␈α∂A␈α∂good␈α∂test␈α∂for␈α∂such␈α∂a␈α∂formalism␈α∞would␈α∞be␈α∞to␈α∞produce␈α∞a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hprogram␈α
for␈α
translating␈α
from␈α
the␈α
formalism␈α
into␈α
any␈α
of␈α
several␈α
natural␈αlanguages.␈αMore␈αweakly,␈αit
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hshould␈α⊃be␈α⊃as␈α⊃easy␈α⊃for␈α⊃a␈α⊃human␈α⊃to␈α⊃translate␈α⊃from␈α⊃the␈α⊃formalism␈α⊃into␈α⊂a␈α⊂natural␈α⊂language␈α⊂as␈α⊂to
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Htranslate␈α
from␈α
one␈α
known␈α
natural␈α
language␈α
to␈α
another.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_The␈α⊃grammar␈α⊂of␈α⊂such␈α⊂a␈α⊂language␈α⊂would␈α⊂be␈α⊂trivial␈α⊂and␈α⊂mathematical␈α⊂in␈α⊂character.␈α⊂There
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwould␈αbe␈α
an␈α
"English"␈α
version␈α
of␈α
the␈α
formalism␈α
in␈α
which␈α
English␈α
words␈α
were␈α
used␈α
as␈α
identifiers,␈α
but
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthere␈αwould␈αstill␈αhave␈αto␈αbe␈αa␈αglossary␈α
that␈α
gives␈α
the␈α
precise␈α
meaning␈α
of␈α
the␈α
identifiers.␈α
There␈α
would
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Halso␈αbe␈αa␈αGerman␈αand␈αa␈αJapanese␈αversion.␈αThe␈αtranslation␈αfrom␈αthe␈αEnglish␈αversion␈αto␈αthe␈αGerman
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hor␈αJapanese␈αversion␈αwould␈αbe␈αa␈αsimple␈αsubstitution␈αfor␈αidentifiers,␈αand␈αa␈αGerman␈αor␈αJapanese␈αwho
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hhad␈α∂learned␈α∂the␈α∂grammar␈α∂could␈α∂then␈α∂translate␈α∂into␈α∂his␈α∂language␈α∂with␈α∞the␈α∞aid␈α∞of␈α∞the␈α∞German␈α∞or
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HJapanese␈α
glossary.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_This␈αidea␈αhas␈αsome␈αresemblance␈αto␈αthe␈αidea␈αof␈α"deep␈αstructure",␈α
but␈α
I␈α
have␈α
some␈α
doubts␈α
about
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwhether␈α
that␈α
idea␈α
is␈α
well␈α
enough␈α
defined␈α
to␈α
say␈α
definitely␈α
whether␈α
it␈α
meets␈α
the␈α
above␈α
criteria.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_2.␈α∞A␈α∞data␈α∞structure␈α∞for␈α∞expressing␈α
the␈α
facts␈α
(apart␈α
from␈α
expressing␈α
the␈α
sentences).␈α
In␈α
such␈α
a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdata␈αstructure,␈αit␈αwould␈αbe␈αdefinite␈αwhich␈αrobber␈αpushed␈αMr.␈αHug␈αfirst,␈αand␈αwhat␈αthe␈αrobbers␈αsaid
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Heven␈α
though␈α
it␈α
is␈αnot␈αstated␈αin␈αthe␈αstory.␈αClearly␈αsome␈αcompromise␈αis␈αnecessary␈αhere,␈αsince␈αthe␈αdata
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hstructure␈α
need␈α
not␈α
be␈α
able␈α
to␈α
express␈α
positions␈α
and␈α
velocities␈α
of␈α
molecules.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_The␈αbasis␈αof␈αthis␈αdata␈αstructure␈αmight␈αbe␈αvarious␈αnetworks␈αof␈αnodes␈αdescribed␈αby␈αsentences␈α
in
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈αpredicate␈αcalculus.␈αSome␈αof␈αthe␈αsentences␈αwould␈αassert␈αthat␈αcertain␈αprograms␈αapplied␈αto␈αthe␈αdata
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hstructures␈αwould␈αanswer␈αcertain␈αquestions.␈αWhen␈α
such␈α
sentences␈α
existed,␈α
reasoning␈α
would␈α
include␈α
the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hoperation␈α
of␈α
the␈α
programs.␈α
In␈α
this␈α
way,␈α
we␈α
would␈α
expect␈αto␈αavoid␈αthe␈αextreme␈αprolixity␈αthat␈αarises
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwhen␈α
we␈α
attempt␈α
to␈α
do␈α
even␈α
simple␈α
calculations␈α
by␈α
pure␈α
predicate␈α
calculus␈α
deduction.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_The␈α∂test␈α∂of␈α∂success␈α∂for␈α∂the␈α∂"data␈α∂structure"␈α∂would␈α∂be␈α∂that␈α∂a␈α∂human␈α∂could␈α∂readily␈α∞formally
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdeduce␈α
the␈α
answers␈αto␈αthe␈αabove␈αquestions␈αusing␈αa␈αproof␈αchecker.␈αMost␈αof␈αthe␈αproof-checker␈αwould
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hbe␈α
straightforward,␈α
but␈α
there␈α
is␈α
a␈α
major␈α
problem␈αconcerned␈αwith␈αwhen␈αit␈αis␈αpossible␈αto␈α"jump␈αto␈αa
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hconclusion".
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_3.␈α
I␈α
see␈α
each␈α
of␈α
the␈α
following␈α
problems␈α
as␈α
a␈α
difficult␈α
AI␈α
problem:
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_a.␈α
A␈α
"parser"␈α
that␈α
takes␈α
English␈α
into␈α
the␈α
"syntax␈α
free␈α
language".
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_b.␈α
An␈α
"understander"␈α
that␈α
constructs␈α
the␈α
"facts"␈α
from␈α
a␈α
text␈α
in␈α
the␈α
"syntax␈α
free␈α
language".
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_c.␈α∪Expression␈α∪of␈α∩the␈α∩"general␈α∩information"␈α∩about␈α∩the␈α∩world␈α∩that␈α∩could␈α∩allow␈α∩getting␈α∩the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hanswers␈α∞to␈α∞the␈α∞questions␈α∞by␈α∞formal␈α∞reasoning␈α
from␈α
the␈α
"facts"␈α
and␈α
the␈α
"general␈α
information".␈α
The
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H"general␈α∪information"␈α∪would␈α∪also␈α∪contain␈α∩non-sentence␈α∩data␈α∩structures␈α∩and␈α∩procedures,␈α∩but␈α∩the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hsentences␈α
would␈α
tell␈α
what␈α
goals␈α
can␈α
be␈α
achieved␈α
by␈αrunning␈αthe␈αprocedures.␈αIn␈αthis␈αway,␈αwe␈αwould
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hget␈α
the␈α
best␈α
of␈α
the␈α
sentential␈α
and␈α
procedural␈α
representations␈α
of␈α
knowledge.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_d.␈α
A␈α
"problem␈α
solver"␈α
that␈α
could␈α
answer␈α
the␈α
above␈α
questions␈α
on␈α
the␈αbasis␈αof␈αthe␈α"facts".␈αWe
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Himagine␈α∞the␈α∞questions␈α∞to␈α∞be␈α∞expressed␈α∞in␈α∞the␈α∞"fact"␈α
language␈α
and␈α
expect␈α
the␈α
answers␈α
in␈α
the␈α
"fact"
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hlanguage,␈α∞i.e.␈α∞we␈α∞avoid␈α∞grammar␈α∞problems␈α
in␈α
both␈α
understanding␈α
the␈α
questions␈α
and␈α
in␈α
expressing
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α
answers.
␈↓ ↓H
NOTES ON AN "UNDERSTANDER"
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_When␈α∞my␈α∞understander␈α∞has␈α∞digested␈α∞the␈α∞story␈α∞of␈α∞Mr.␈α
Hug,␈α
it␈α
will␈α
have␈α
added␈α
one␈α
or␈α
more
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hpredicate␈α
calculus␈α
sentences␈α
to␈α
its␈α
data␈α
base.␈α
One␈α
sentence␈α
will␈α
do␈α
if␈α
it␈α
has␈α
the␈α
form
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_∃␈αe␈αp1␈αp2␈αg1␈α
g2␈α
e1␈α
e2␈α
...␈α
.␈α
event(e)␈α
∧␈α
person(p1)␈α
∧␈α
name(p1)␈α
=␈α
"John.␈α
J.␈α
Hug"␈α
∧␈α
g1␈α
⊂␈α
Robbers␈α
∧
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H...␈α
etc.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HIn␈αthis␈αform,␈αall␈αthe␈αentities␈αinvolved␈αin␈αexpressing␈αthe␈αfacts␈αof␈αthe␈αstory␈αare␈αexistentially␈αquantified
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hvariables.␈α⊂The␈α⊂only␈α⊂constants␈α⊂in␈α⊂the␈α∂formula␈α∂would␈α∂have␈α∂been␈α∂present␈α∂in␈α∂the␈α∂system␈α∂previously.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HHowever,␈αit␈αis␈αprobably␈αbetter␈αto␈αuse␈αa␈αcollection␈αof␈αsentences␈αintroducing␈αa␈αcollection␈αof␈αindividual
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hconstants.␈αIn␈αthis␈αcase,␈αthere␈αwill␈αbe␈α20␈αor␈αso␈αnew␈α
individual␈α
constants␈α
representing␈α
people,␈α
groups␈α
of
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hpeople,␈α
the␈α
main␈α
event␈α
and␈α
its␈α
sub-events,␈α
places,␈α
organizations,␈α
etc.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_1.␈α∀In␈α∀representing␈α∀the␈α∀robbers,␈α∀the␈α∀system␈α∀has␈α∀a␈α∀choice␈α∀of␈α∪representing␈α∪them␈α∪by␈α∪three
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hindividual␈α∂constants,␈α∂R1,␈α∂R2,␈α∂and␈α∂R3␈α∂or␈α∂by␈α∂using␈α∂a␈α∂single␈α∂symbol␈α∂G1␈α∂to␈α∂represent␈α∂the␈α∂group␈α∂of
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hrobbers.␈α∂A␈α∂good␈α∂system␈α∂will␈α∂probably␈α∂use␈α∂both.␈α∂If␈α∂the␈α∂number␈α∂of␈α∞robbers␈α∞were␈α∞not␈α∞specified,␈α∞we
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwould␈α⊂have␈α⊂to␈α⊂use␈α⊂a␈α⊂constant␈α⊂for␈α⊂the␈α⊂group.␈α∂We␈α∂have␈α∂to␈α∂identify␈α∂the␈α∂robber␈α∂who␈α∂operated␈α∂the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Helevator␈α
while␈αthe␈αothers␈αpushed␈αMr.␈αHug␈αinto␈αthe␈αshaft.␈αWe␈αshall␈αcall␈αhim␈αR1.␈αThe␈αother␈αtwo␈αare
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hnot␈αdiscriminated␈αin␈αthe␈αstory,␈αbut␈αthere␈αis␈αno␈αharm␈αin␈αour␈αcalling␈αthem␈αR2␈αand␈αR3,␈αeven␈αif␈αthere␈αis
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hno␈αinformation␈αto␈αdiscriminate␈αthem.␈α
If␈α
there␈α
were␈α
20␈α
robbers,␈α
it␈α
would␈α
be␈α
a␈α
mistake␈α
to␈α
give␈α
them␈α
all
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hindividual␈αnames.␈αSuppose␈α
it␈α
had␈α
further␈α
been␈α
stated␈α
that␈α
as␈α
the␈α
robbers␈α
left␈α
one␈α
of␈α
them␈α
threatened
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hto␈α∞return␈α∞and␈α
kill␈α
Mr.␈α
Hug␈α
later␈α
but␈α
that␈α
it␈α
was␈α
not␈α
stated␈α
whether␈α
this␈α
robber␈α
was␈α
the␈α
same␈α
one
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwho␈αoperated␈αthe␈αelevator.␈αWe␈αcould␈αdesignate␈αthis␈αrobber␈αby␈αR4,␈αbut␈αwe␈αwould␈αnot␈αhave␈αsentences
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hasserting␈αthat␈αR4␈αwas␈αdistinct␈αfrom␈αR1,␈αR2␈αand␈αR3;␈αinstead␈αwe␈αwould␈αhave␈αa␈αsentence␈αasserting␈αthat
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HR4␈αwas␈αone␈αof␈αthese.␈αIt␈αis␈αtempting␈αto␈αidentify␈αthe␈αgroup␈αof␈αrobbers␈αwith␈αthe␈αset␈α{R1,R2,R3},␈αbut␈αwe
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hmay␈α
want␈α
to␈α
give␈α
the␈α
group␈α
some␈α
properties␈αnot␈αenjoyed␈αby␈αthe␈αset␈αof␈αits␈αmembers.␈αSentences␈αwith
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hplural␈αsubjects␈αexpress␈αsome␈αrather␈αtricky␈αconcepts.␈αThus,␈α
the␈α
group␈α
robbed␈α
the␈α
store,␈α
and␈α
this␈α
is␈α
not
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Han␈α
assertion␈α
that␈α
each␈α
member␈α
robbed␈α
the␈α
store.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_The␈α
"members␈α
of␈α
the␈α
police␈α
emergency␈α
squad"␈α
presents␈α
a␈α
similar␈α
problem.␈αWe␈αdon't␈αwant␈αto
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hassert␈α
how␈α
many␈α
there␈α
were.␈α
In␈α
this␈α
connection,␈α
it␈α
may␈α
be␈α
worthwhile␈αto␈αdistinguish␈αbetween␈αwhat
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hhappened␈αand␈αwhat␈αwe␈αwish␈αto␈αassert␈αabout␈αwhat␈αhappened.␈αA␈αlanguage␈αadequate␈αto␈αdescribe␈αwhat
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hhappened␈α∂would␈α∂not␈α∞have␈α∞to␈α∞leave␈α∞the␈α∞number␈α∞of␈α∞policemen␈α∞present␈α∞vague␈α∞and␈α∞could␈α∞give␈α∞them
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Heach␈α⊂a␈α⊂name.␈α⊂In␈α⊂my␈α⊂old␈α⊂jargon,␈α⊂such␈α⊂a␈α∂language␈α∂would␈α∂be␈α∂metaphysically␈α∂adequate␈α∂though␈α∂not
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hepistemologically␈α⊃adequate.␈α⊃Devising␈α⊃a␈α⊃language␈α⊃that␈α⊃is␈α⊃only␈α⊃metaphysically␈α⊃adequate␈α⊃may␈α⊃be␈α⊂a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hworthwhile␈α∂stage␈α∂on␈α∂the␈α∞way␈α∞to␈α∞an␈α∞epistemologically␈α∞adequate␈α∞system.␈α∞By␈α∞"devising␈α∞a␈α∞language"␈α∞I
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hmean␈α∀defining␈α∀a␈α∀collection␈α∀of␈α∀predicate␈α∪and␈α∪constant␈α∪symbols␈α∪and␈α∪axiomatizing␈α∪their␈α∪general
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hproperties.␈αThis␈αlanguage␈αshould␈αnot␈αbe␈αpeculiar␈αto␈αthe␈αstory␈αof␈αMr.␈αHug,␈α
but␈α
we␈α
should␈α
not␈α
require
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthat␈α
it␈α
be␈α
completely␈α
general␈α
in␈α
the␈α
present␈α
state␈α
of␈α
the␈α
science.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_2.␈α⊃It␈α⊃is␈α⊃not␈α⊂obvious␈α⊂how␈α⊂to␈α⊂express␈α⊂what␈α⊂we␈α⊂know␈α⊂when␈α⊂we␈α⊂are␈α⊂told␈α⊂that␈α⊂Mr.␈α⊂Hug␈α⊂is␈α⊂a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hfurniture␈αsalesman.␈αA␈αdirect␈αapproach␈αis␈αto␈αdefine␈αan␈αabstract␈αentity␈αcalled␈α
Furniture␈α
and␈α
a␈α
function
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcalled␈α
salesmen␈α
and␈α
to␈α
assert
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_Hug␈α
ε␈α
salesmen(Furniture).
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HThis␈α
will␈α
probably␈α
work␈α
although␈α
the␈α
logical␈α
connection␈α
between␈αthe␈αabstract␈αentity␈αFurniture␈αand
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hconcrete␈αchairs␈αand␈αtables␈αneeds␈αto␈αbe␈αworked␈αout.␈αIt␈αwould␈αbe␈αover-simplified␈αto␈αidentify␈αFurniture
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwith␈αthe␈αset␈αof␈αfurniture␈αin␈αexistence␈αat␈αthat␈αtime,␈αbecause␈αone␈αcould␈αbe␈αa␈αsalesman␈αof␈αspace␈αshuttles
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Heven␈αthough␈αthere␈αdon't␈αexist␈αany␈αyet.␈αIn␈αmy␈αopinion,␈αone␈αshould␈αresist␈αa␈αtendency␈αto␈αapply␈αOccam's
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hrazor␈α⊂prematurely.␈α⊂Perhaps␈α⊂we␈α⊂can␈α⊂identify␈α⊂the␈α⊂abstract␈α⊂Furniture␈α⊂with␈α⊂the␈α∂an␈α∂extension␈α∂of␈α∂the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hpredicate␈αthat␈αtells␈αus␈αwhether␈αan␈αobject␈αshould␈αbe␈αregarded␈αas␈αa␈αpiece␈αof␈αfurniture,␈αperhaps␈αnot.␈αIt
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdoes␈αno␈αharm␈αto␈αkeep␈αthem␈αseparate␈αfor␈αthe␈αtime␈αbeing.␈αThis␈αcase␈αlooks␈αlike␈αan␈αargument␈αfor␈αusing
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hsecond␈α⊃order␈α⊃logic␈α⊃so␈α⊃that␈α⊃the␈α⊃argument␈α⊃of␈α⊂␈↓↓salesmen␈↓␈α⊂could␈α⊂be␈α⊂the␈α⊂predicate␈α⊂␈↓↓furniture␈↓␈α⊂that␈α⊂tells
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwhether␈αan␈αobject␈α
is␈α
a␈α
piece␈α
of␈α
furniture.␈α
However,␈α
there␈α
are␈α
various␈α
techniques␈α
for␈α
getting␈α
the␈α
same
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hresult␈α
without␈α
the␈α
use␈α
of␈α
second␈α
order␈α
logic.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_3.␈αOccam's␈αrazor.␈αAfter␈αreading␈αthe␈αstory,␈αone␈αis␈α
prepared␈α
to␈α
answer␈α
negatively␈α
the␈α
question␈α
of
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwhether␈α∩there␈α∩was␈α∩someone␈α⊃else␈α⊃besides␈α⊃Mr.␈α⊃Hug␈α⊃and␈α⊃the␈α⊃robbers␈α⊃present.␈α⊃However,␈α⊃sentences
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdescribing␈αsuch␈αanother␈αperson␈αcould␈αbe␈αadded␈αto␈αthe␈αstory␈αwithout␈αcontradiction.␈αOur␈αbasis␈αfor␈αthe
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hnegative␈α∂answer␈α∂is␈α∂that␈α∂we␈α∂can␈α∂construct␈α∂a␈α∂model␈α∂of␈α∂the␈α∞facts␈α∞stated␈α∞in␈α∞the␈α∞story␈α∞without␈α∞such␈α∞a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hperson,␈α∞and␈α
we␈α
are␈α
applying␈α
Occam's␈α
razor␈α
in␈α
order␈α
to␈α
not␈α
␈↓↓multiply␈α
entities␈α
beyond␈α
necessity␈↓.␈α
This
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcould␈αbe␈αattributed␈αto␈α
the␈α
fact␈α
that␈α
the␈α
␈↓↓New␈α
York␈α
Times␈↓␈α
tells␈α
the␈α
whole␈α
story␈α
when␈α
it␈α
can,␈α
but␈α
I␈α
think
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthat␈αby␈αputting␈αOccam's␈αrazor␈αinto␈αthe␈αsystem,␈αwe␈αcan␈α
get␈α
this␈α
result␈α
without␈α
having␈α
to␈α
formalize␈α
the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H␈↓↓New␈α
York␈α
Times␈↓.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_This␈α∞suggests␈α∞introducing␈α∞the␈α∞notion␈α∞of␈α∞the␈α∞minimal␈α∞completion␈α∞of␈α∞a␈α∞story␈α
expressed␈α
in␈α
the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hpredicate␈α∞calculus.␈α∞The␈α∞minimal␈α∞completion␈α∞of␈α∞the␈α∞story␈α∞is␈α∞also␈α∞a␈α∞set␈α
of␈α
sentences␈α
in␈α
the␈α
predicate
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcalculus,␈α⊂but␈α⊂it␈α⊂contains␈α∂sentences␈α∂asserting␈α∂things␈α∂like␈α∂"The␈α∂set␈α∂of␈α∂people␈α∂in␈α∂the␈α∂store␈α∂while␈α∂the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hrobbers␈αwere␈αtrying␈αto␈αcrush␈αMr.␈αHug␈αconsists␈αof␈αMr.␈αHug␈αand␈αthe␈αrobbers".␈αThese␈αsentences␈αare␈αto
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hbe␈α∞obtained␈α∞from␈α∞the␈α∞original␈α
set␈α
by␈α
the␈α
application␈α
of␈α
a␈α
process␈α
formalizing␈α
Occam's␈α
razor.␈α
This
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hprocess␈αworks␈αfrom␈αa␈αset␈αof␈α
sentences␈α
and␈α
is␈α
not␈α
logical␈α
deduction␈α
although␈α
it␈α
might␈α
be␈α
accomplished
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hby␈αdeduction␈αin␈αa␈αmeta-␈αlanguage␈α
that␈α
contained␈α
sentences␈α
about␈α
sets␈α
of␈α
sentences.␈α
As␈α
I␈α
have␈α
pointed
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hout␈α∀elsewhere,␈α∀the␈α∀process␈α∀cannot␈α∀be␈α∀deduction,␈α∀because␈α∪it␈α∪generates␈α∪sentences␈α∪that␈α∪contradict
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hsentences␈α
that␈α
are␈α
consistent␈α
with␈α
the␈α
original␈α
set␈α
of␈α
sentences.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_A␈α
number␈α
of␈α
the␈α
questions␈α
given␈α
in␈α
the␈α
previous␈α
section␈α
have␈α
answers␈α
that␈αcan␈αbe␈αformally
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdeduced␈α
from␈α
the␈α
minimal␈α
completion␈α
but␈α
not␈α
from␈α
the␈α
original␈α
list.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_It␈α
has␈α
been␈α
suggested␈α
that␈α
probabilistic␈α
reasoning␈α
should␈α
be␈α
used␈α
to␈α
exclude␈α
the␈α
presence␈αof
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hother␈α∂people␈α∞rather␈α∞than␈α∞Occam's␈α∞razor.␈α∞The␈α∞problem␈α∞with␈α∞this␈α∞is␈α∞that␈α∞the␈α∞number␈α∞of␈α∞additional
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hentities␈αthat␈αare␈αnot␈αlogically␈αexcluded␈αis␈αlimited␈αonly␈αby␈αone's␈α
imagination␈α
so␈α
that␈α
it␈α
is␈α
not␈α
clear␈α
how
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hone␈α∞could␈α∞construct␈α∞a␈α∞probabilistic␈α∞model␈α∞that␈α∞took␈α∞these␈α
possibilities␈α
into␈α
account␈α
only␈α
to␈α
exclude
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthem␈α
as␈α
improbable.␈α
If␈α
one␈α
wants␈α
to␈α
introduce␈α
probabilities,␈α
it␈α
might␈α
make␈α
more␈α
sense␈α
to␈α
assign␈α
a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hprobability␈αto␈αthe␈αcorrectness␈αof␈α
the␈α
minimal␈α
completion␈α
of␈α
a␈α
␈↓↓New␈α
York␈α
Times␈↓␈α
story␈α
based␈α
on␈α
its␈α
past
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hrecord␈α
in␈α
finding␈α
the␈α
relevant␈α
facts␈α
of␈α
robberies.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_Another␈α
problem␈α
in␈α
constructing␈α
the␈α
completion␈α
is␈α
the␈α
isolation␈αof␈αthe␈αstory␈αfrom␈αthe␈αrest␈αof
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α
world.␈α
The␈α
members␈α
of␈αthe␈αPolice␈αEmergency␈αSquad␈αall␈αhave␈αmothers␈α(living␈αor␈αdead),␈αbut␈αwe
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdon't␈αwant␈αto␈α
bring␈α
them␈α
in␈α
to␈α
the␈α
completion␈α
-␈α
not␈α
to␈α
speak␈α
of␈α
bringing␈α
in␈α
more␈α
remote␈α
ancestors␈α
all
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hof␈α
whom␈α
can␈α
be␈α
asserted␈α
to␈α
exist␈α
on␈α
the␈α
basis␈α
of␈α
axioms␈α
about␈α
people.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_To␈α∂recapitulate:␈α∂The␈α∂original␈α∂set␈α∂of␈α∂predicate␈α∂calculus␈α∂sentences␈α∂can␈α∞be␈α∞generated␈α∞from␈α∞the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hstory␈αas␈αone␈αgoes␈αalong.␈αEach␈αsentence␈αis␈αgenerated␈αapproximately␈αfrom␈αa␈αsentence␈αof␈αthe␈αstory␈αwith
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α
aid␈α
of␈α
general␈α
knowledge␈αand␈αwhat␈αhas␈αbeen␈αgenerated␈αfrom␈αthe␈αprevious␈αsentences.␈α(This␈αwill
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Husually␈α
be␈α
the␈α
case␈αif␈αthe␈αstory␈αis␈αwell␈αtold␈αalthough␈αthere␈αare␈αsometimes␈αcases␈αin␈αwhich␈αthe␈αcorrect
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hway␈α∪to␈α∪express␈α∪a␈α∪sentence␈α∪will␈α∪depend␈α∪on␈α∪what␈α∪follows␈α∩-␈α∩but␈α∩this␈α∩is␈α∩not␈α∩good␈α∩writing).␈α∩The
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcompletion,␈α
however,␈α
will␈α
depend␈α
on␈α
the␈α
whole␈α
of␈α
the␈α
story.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α_It␈αmight␈αbe␈αinteresting␈αto␈αconsider␈αwhat␈αcan␈αbe␈αdetermined␈αfrom␈αa␈αpartial␈αreading␈α
of␈α
the␈α
story
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H-␈αeven␈αstopping␈αthe␈αreading␈αin␈α
the␈α
middle␈α
of␈α
a␈α
sentence␈α
since␈α
what␈α
has␈α
appeared␈α
so␈α
far␈α
in␈α
a␈α
sentence
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hoften␈α
must␈α
be␈α
understood␈α
in␈α
order␈α
to␈α
even␈α
parse␈α
the␈α
rest␈α
of␈α
the␈α
sentence.
␈↓ ↓H